Tudor Dynasty

The Tudor Dynasty was a royal family that ruled England from 1485 to 1603. The founder of the dynasty was Owen Tudor. He was from a Welsh family, who was a squire at the court of Henry V and who married that king's widow, Catherine. The Tudor dynasty was an English royal dynasty that lasted 118 years. The founder was Henry Tudor, a descendent of an illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, the first Duke of Lancaster, the third son of Edward III. Henry VII was also a descendent of Edward I through his great-grandmother, Margaret Holland.

During the reign of the Tudors the country was divided between the Catholics and the Protestants. The foundation of national religion was set. The Bible was translated into many languages and became aware of the facts in religion. People began to gather courage and strength to talk about the deeds of the Pope and Church. The most famous of the tudor dynasty were Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward IV, Mary I, Elizabeth I. Henry VIII is the most famous for having many wives and Elizabeth is famous for her lack of husbands. The Tudor dynasty has captivated history for hundreds and hundreds of years. This is because of the colorful characters, political and personal personality attached to each person.

The Tudors first came to power in 1485 when Henry defeated Richard III. He then became the first Tudor King to rule. The father of Henry VIII, was troubled during his reign but he also brought about unification within the country. Later on England had been divided between the Houses of Lancaster and York. Until Henry VII’s marriage to the daughter of Edward IV, who united the two houses back together.

The throne of England was inherited by Edwar , Mary I, known as 'Bloody Mary' for her burning of Protestants and Elizabeth 1. She survived a tough childhood and she lead England to victory over the Spanish, the greatest power of the age. The Tudor dynasty became extinct on the death of Elizabeth without a heir to take over in 1603. The crown of England was then passed to Henry VII's great-grandson, James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England.

The history of Christmas

Christmas is for joy, for giving and sharing, for laughter, for coming together with family and friends. But mostly, Christmas is for love, the love for which Jesus came to this world and sacrificed his life. Christmas is a celebration of love symbolized by the Nativity and Santa. It is all that brings the family and friends the spirit of love and life. This spirit is what makes Christmas so popular throughout the world.

St. Nicholas was a Christian priest, who later became a bishop. He did not like to be seen when he gave away presents, so the children of the day were told to go to sleep quickly or he would not come. Still today this has not changed and Santa Claus will not arrive during any Christmas unless children go to sleep early. There is a famous story about St. Nicholas, that is about a poor man who had no money to give to his three daughters on their wedding day and then he dropped bags of gold into the stockings which the girls had left to dry by the fire. They found the gold and ever since, children have hung up stockings on Christmas Eve hoping that they will be filled with presents by Christmas morning.

Santa was then portrayed by dozens of artists in a wide variety of styles, sizes, and colors. He appeared in magazines, on billboards, and shop counters, encouraging Americans to see Coke as the solution to "a thirst for all seasons." By the 1950s Santa was turning up everywhere. This commercial success led to the North American Santa Claus being exported around the world where he threatens to overcome the European St. Nicholas, who has retained his identity as a Christian bishop and saint.

The Christmas tree, one of the most famous symbols of the modern Christmas celebration. By the 19Th century the Christmas tree had become very popular in America. Early Christmas trees were decorated with apples, nuts and candles. But today they are decorated with electrical lights, tinsels, ornaments and a large star is usually placed on the top of the tree. Because of his kindness Nicholas was made a Saint. St. Nicholas is also the saint of sailors. One story tells of him helping some sailors that were caught in a storm. All the men were scared that their ship would sink. They prayed to St. Nicholas to help them and how the legend goes is that he was standing on the deck before them. Nicholas ordered the sea to calm down, the storm died away.

Christmas is the most looked forward to holiday for most Christian children. Many people often think only of gifts, and not about the true meaning of Christmas. Christmas is many times celebrated by people who do not believe in Jesus. The real cause is to remember the birth of Jesus. The modern day Christmas includes gifts, church celebrations, and the many decorations. Like the Christmas tree, lights, mistletoe, nativity scenes and holly. Santa Claus has become the main focus of Christmas. Santa is generally believed to be the result of St. Nicholas. (bookrags) (Online source)

online book: Bookrags:http://www.bookrags.com/essay-2003/12/24/184125/97
online source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas

Salah al Din

Saladin was born into a prominent Kurdish family, and it is said that on the night of his birth, his father, Najm ad-Din Ayyub, gathered his family and moved to Aleppo. He grew up in Damascus, where he apparently had an undistinguished youth, with a greater taste for religious studies than military training. Historians believe he was a short man with a neat beard and in some ways frail. Salah al-Din founded the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria. He was born in 1138 in Tikrit. He was a Kurdish warrior, who became the Sultan of Egypt. Salah al Din became a legend in the East and West for his role in clearing the Crusaders from Jerusalem.

Saladin learned his military lessons and began to stand out among Nur ed-Din's forces. In several campaigns between the years of 1164 and 1169 he had made many lasting impressions on people. In just two years Saladin united Egypt with the Abbasid Caliphate. When Nur ed-Din died in 1174, Saladin began his expansion of the territories. After a three-month battle he captured Jerusalem in 1187.

Saladin achieved a great reputation in Europe as a chivalrous knight. His relationship with King Richard I of England, was one of mutual respect as well as military rivalry. When Richard was wounded, Saladin even offered the services of his personal physician. Saladin brought an entirely different concept of a city to Cairo after the Fatimids, because he wanted a unified, thriving, fortified place, protected by strong walls.

By the end of 1185 Saladin had imposed his authority in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. He was ready to turn his full attention to the crusading kingdom. The jihad was declared in the beginning of 1187. Saladin set a trap for the crusaders; they marched into it and were surprised and slaughtered. (Cantor)

The kings of western Europe responded to the fall of Jerusalem by taking the cross and then by gathering their knights and this was known as the Third Crusade. King Richard I defeated Saladin. In February 1193, Saladin rode out from Damascus to welcome pilgrims returning from Mecca. His greatest ambition had been to make the pilgrimage to Mecca but he had never found the time. It was a very cold day and that evening Saladin had to go to bed with a fever. As days passed his condition worsened and he became unconscious and died on March 3rd. (bookrags)

Bookrags:http://www.bookrags.com/biography/saladin/ (Online book)
Cantor, F, Norman. The civilization of the Middle Ages. New York. 1993. Harpercollins publishers, Inc.

The Popes of the Crusades

There were many popes during the time of the crusades. The main ones were Pope Gregory the seventh, Pope Urban the second, Pope Eugenius the third, Pope Gregory the eighth, Pope Innocent the third, and Pope Nicholas the fourth. These were the most important and most remembered popes of the time. The ones that I find most interesting are Gregory the seventh, Pope Urban the second, pope Innocent the third and Pope Gregory the eighth .

Gregory the seventh was born in Sovana, Italy in 1020. He was the son of Bunicus. Gregory came to Rome at an early age for his education. He is considered the most important of the popes. In Cologne he was wanted to pursue his studies; he had an interest in the elevation of the Church. Gregory become pope and helped the church out and created a stronger church.

Pope Urban the second was born around 1035 to a noble family in northern France. He was educated at a school associated with the Reims cathedral. Urban worked in Germany as a papal legate, who supported for Pope Gregory VII in the struggle with the Holy Roman Emperor. After the death of Gregory, Urban was elected pope on March 12, 1088, but was in exile at the time. Urban was a member of a reform movement that wanted the clergy to be more removed and from this it brought him closer to life in a monastery.

Pope Innocent was one of the greatest popes of the Middle Ages. He was the son of Count Trasimund and was born 1160 or 1161 at Anagni. Innocent had an his early education at Rome, in which he studied theology at Paris, and became a theologian and one of the greatest jurists of that time. Innocent had tried to improve the church discipline and to root out all corruption don to the local level. He was very concerned about the unprofessional behaviour in the clergy. The necessary foundation of all achievements according to Innocent was the reconstruction of the administration of the church. (Cantor Norman 419 and 501)

Pope Gregory was born in Albert de Mora and was the Pope from October 25, 1187 until his death. He was a well-educated noble who became a monk at a very young age. Pope Gregory the eighth was also known as Gregory the Great. he was nit only a pope but also a apostle of English. He is considered one of the most important popes and influential writers of the Middle Ages. He was the son of a Roman senator and entered the service of the State at a very young age. In 573 he sold most of his properties and founded six monasteries in Sicily and the seventh in Rome. Gregory did not live to see the third crusade because he died of fever that same year. (Bookrags)

Cantor, F, Norman. The civilization of the Middle Ages. New York. 1993. Harpercollins publishers, Inc.
Online Book: Bookrags: http://www.bookrags.com/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VIII

The Reign of Justianian!!!

The Emperor Justinian ruled from 527 to 65. He expanded an extensive area of territory and military for the Byzantine Empire. Justinian started one of the most aggressive and greatest military programs in Medieval history. His reign is known for the record of architectural and artistic production. During Justinian's reign, the Hagia Sophia was being rebuilt in Constantinople from 532 to 537. Around 480 a young peasant boy was born in the northern region of the Roman Empire known as Thracia. His name was Petrus, but he would be known by historians as Justinian. His uncle Justin, assured Justinian that he would have a successful career in the military.

The reign of Justinian was a significant period because it marked the final end of the Roman empire and the establishment of the new Byzantine empire. Although much is told about Justinian's reign, there is a great deal more to be known about Theodora, his wife. Justinian's armies invaded the Vandal, Ostrogoth, and Visigoth kingdoms and this led to a series of bitter wars. He reconquered much of the Mediterranean lands of the West and it almost seemed as if he had no choice in the matter. During the wars, Justinian had bought peace with the Persians through regular payments of gold.

Justinian succeeded his uncle, Justin, in 527 AD. Before becoming emperor, he married Theodora. In 532 AD, Justinian made peace with the Sassanids which then had made it possible for him to send Roman troops to reconquer, Italy from the Ostrogoths, Africa from the Vandals, and Spain from the Visigoths. This time in history is called the Byzantine Reconquest. In 542 AD, there was a terrible plague that had broke out throughout the Empire, which some historians believe may be the first appearance of the bubonic plague. Justinian had made a law or code for the people of that time to follow. Out of his code would eventually grow the legal systems of modern Europe. The Byzantine Empire reached its greatest expansion under Justinian's rule. He wanted to retake all the Roman territory that had been lost in the previous years. Justinian is known has one of the most successful rulers of the Early Middle Ages. Though a lot of this success was from what he did, a lot of his success was because of his wife Theodora. (Corrick, James 80 & 81)

In the final years of Justinian's reign, misfortune came to the empire. In 556 there was another Samaritan revolt and the next year, a great earthquake shook Constantinople and caused damage. Then the following year, the dome of the new Hagia Sophia collapsed, and had to be rebuilt with a entire new design and around the same time, the plague returned to Constantinople. Another problem that occurred was street violence and there were bread shortages and water shortages. And in late 562, there was a conspiracy which almost succeeded in killing Justinian.

The emperors after Justinian never had the strength to reconstruct the Roman Empire. After him the Byzantine Empire just drifted farther and farther away from the European culture to one of its own. The Justinian code is the last written product of the Byzantine letters to be written in Latin. Justinian was the greatest emperor since Constantine. Justinian's code is known to maybe be the most outstanding accomplishment in history. The law consists of legal life of a great world empire over many years. (Norman Cantor 125 & 131)

Cantor, F, Norman. The civilization of the Middle Ages. New York. 1993. Harpercollins publishers, Inc.
Corrick, A, James. "The Early Middle Ages. San Diego. 1995. Lucent Books, Inc.

William the conqueror

William was the son of Robert the Duke of Normandy, and Herleva of Falaise. He was born in 1027. In 1035, Robert went on a pilgrimage, but before he settled out on his he forced his lords to swear to protect William. It is said that William was illegitimate, and though he was, he was the only living son of Robert. Robert of Normandy died in 1035 on his way to pilgrimage. Robert had left him several Norman guardians to watch over him. Many Normans did not want an illegitimate son as their leader and in 1040 some people made an attempt to kill William. The plan failed but they did manage to kill his guardians. Shortly after, William was forced to accept Ralph of Wacy as his guardian and leader of his armed forces. He was not happy with this because Ralph had been involved in the plot against him.

In 1047, the same people rebelled against William again. They, once again failed but these two situations taught him to trust no one. William believed that if someone betrayed him, then he should show no mercy to them in return. William is well known as a violent leader. When William had taken over a town, he ordered that those who had abused him should have their hands and feet cut off. Sometimes it was worse then this. In 1051, William met Edward the Confessor, the King of England. William had claimed that Edward promised him the throne of England. But at the meeting of Edward's death there were no witnesses at the meeting.

In 1053, William married Matilda of Flanders, the daughter of Count Baldwin of Flanders. They had nine children. During the reign of William, his power in Normandy was constantly under threat. William and Matilda eventually married, and they seemed to have been quite happy together. They had at least four sons and five daughters. The pope didn't agree with the marriage because William and Matilda were distant cousins. The King of England promised to make William king after he had died. He also promised to marry William's daughter Agatha. But King Harold broke both of these promises, which would start the Norman invasion of England.

One feature of William’s reign as king was his reorganization of the feudal and administrative systems. He introduced the Continental system of feudalism, also establishing that a vassal’s loyalty to the king was far more greater then his loyalty to his lord. William also did another outstanding accomplishment which was the economic survey undertaken and incorporated in 1086. William and his sons had great financial resources not only because of England's wealth but because money was needed to support the king and his family, and everything else. William set up a taxation inauguration which became the important key to the political history of the Middle Ages. (Norman Cantor)

Though he is well known as one of the greatest rulers of the middle ages, William's later years were sad, hard ones. He lost his wife, Matilda in 1083 and grew so very fat that while on a military campaign in the year 1087,he fell of his horse and injured his stomach on his saddle horn. The wound never healed and this led to an illness from which he never recovered from. On September 9, 1087, William died. His body had become so bloated and big from the swelling that the people had a hard time fitting him into the tomb. While they struggled to wedge it in, his body burst open, and puss squeezed out everywhere. The whole church had filled with the smell of the rotting body. (book rags)

Online book: http://www.bookrags.com/research/william-the-conqueror-scit-0212345/
Cantor, F, Norman. The civilization of the Middle Ages. New York. 1993. Harpercollins publishers, inc.

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